Syriac Scholarship in Philosophy: 

A Legacy of Transmission and Original Thought

Syriac scholarship in philosophy represents a pivotal, yet often understated, chapter in the history of intellectual thought. Far from being mere recipients of knowledge, Syriac scholars emerged as original thinkers, meticulous translators, insightful commentators, and indispensable intermediaries. Their unique approach to philosophy, often viewed as a means to deeper religious understanding rather than an end in itself, shaped the nature of their intellectual contributions. This report details their indigenous philosophical developments, their profound engagement with Greek philosophical traditions through extensive translation and commentary, and their critical role in transmitting this knowledge to the burgeoning Arab intellectual world, thereby laying foundational groundwork for Islamic philosophy and, subsequently, for its transmission to Europe.

Philosophy, as a systematic inquiry into fundamental questions concerning existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language, originated in ancient Greek colonies and flourished in Greece itself. From this "Greek fountain," various nations, including the Syriacs, Romans, and Copts, derived their philosophical knowledge. Unlike the Greeks, these cultures did not initially develop a distinct, indigenous philosophical tradition in the same vein. Instead, their engagement with philosophy was largely an adoption and adaptation of Greek thought.

A defining characteristic of Syriac philosophical engagement was its inherent purpose. For the Syriacs, who were predominantly individuals of a religious disposition, philosophy served primarily as a means not an end. This perspective implies that their scholarly pursuits in philosophy were often driven by theological, ethical, or practical considerations, rather than purely speculative or abstract inquiry for its own sake. This orientation influenced the emphasis and scope of their philosophical studies, often intertwining philosophical concepts with doctrinal discussions or focusing on logic as a tool for systematic thought and argumentation. This distinct teleology for philosophical study differentiates the Syriac approach from the purely speculative aims often associated with Greek philosophy.

Early Syriac Thinkers 

Mara Bar Seraphion of Samosata, is among the earliest figures conjectured to have lived in the mid-second century. Although not a Christian, he espoused belief in the oneness of God and regarded Jesus Christ as a sage. His philosophical principles, rooted in Stoicism, are notably demonstrated in his Syriac letter to his son. In this letter, Mara urged his son to cultivate self-control over whims, to remain unswayed by transient wealth and prestige, and to diligently pursue and practice wisdom. 

Bardaysan, an Aramaen philosopher, who the first Christian philosophical work is attributed to, and who, despite embracing Christianity, was excommunicated for his heterodox views. His work, Laws of the Countries, dictated in 197 CE, is a concise book discussing the concepts of fortune and fate. Bardaysan posited that human life is influenced by three primary factors: nature, fortune, and will. He defined fortune as a divine power invested in the stars, ordained by God to administer the changing conditions of human existence, with its influence manifesting at the hour of birth in accordance with stellar and elemental relationships.

Later Syriac Scholars and Their Philosophical Treatises

Ahudemeh, Catholicos of Takrit (d. 575), systematically engaged with metaphysics, anthropology, and logic. His original works include a book of Definitions on all parts of logic, and treatises on Fate and Predestination, the Soul, Man as the Microcosm, and the Composition of Man as Consisting of a Soul and Body.

Jacob of Edessa contributed De Causa Ominum Causarum, also known as The First Cause, The Creating and the Almighty. This treatise identifies God as the ultimate First Cause, the Creator, the Almighty, and the Protector of All. According to George, bishop of the Arabs, this work served as an introduction to Jacob's now-lost exposition of the Six Days. Jacob also authored the Enchiridion, a tract dedicated to philosophical terms, and two philosophical poems are ascribed to him.

Theodosius Romanus, Syriac Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch (d. 896), authored a treatise containing one hundred and twelve Pythagorean maxims to which he added a few commentaries in Syriac and Arabic. This work demonstrates a continued engagement with diverse Greek philosophical traditions and an early instance of bilingual commentary.

Moshe Bar Kepha (d. 903) penned a significant doctrinal, theological, and philosophical treatise exploring the intricate relationship between free will and predestination. This work exemplifies the integration of philosophical inquiry with theological concerns prevalent in Syriac thought. Bar Hebraeus also noted his commentary on Aristotle's Dialectics.

An anonymous Syriac bishop from Edessa, likely a tenth century scholar, authored Causa Causarum. This work is notable for its discussion of the knowledge of God through "rational and natural proofs with the exclusion of traditional proofs".This methodological choice, favoring philosophical reasoning independent of direct theological authority, indicates an inclination towards a more rationalistic approach to understanding God and the cosmos. 

Dionysius Bar Salibi, metropolitan of Amid, contributed significantly through his extensive commentaries. In 1148, he wrote a commentary on Porphyry's Isagoge, along with commentaries on Aristotle's Categories and Analytic, and the Allegorical Interpretation of the Holy Scriptures.While primarily a commentator, his detailed expositions represent a substantial intellectual contribution to interpreting and transmitting complex philosophical ideas within the Syriac tradition.

Gabriel of Edessa (d. 1227) is noted for his numerous medical and philosophical works, indicating a broad engagement with both scientific and philosophical disciplines.

Jacob Bar Shakko of Bartelli (d. 1241) composed a compendium work on logic and the definition of philosophy, alongside natural, mathematical, and theological literature, specifically aimed at establishing these subjects in Christian schools. This highlights an effort to systematize and institutionalize philosophical education within the Syriac context.

Gregorius Bar Hebraeus who often ge the attribution of the culmination of Aristotelian philosophical works among the Syrians. He compiled a valuable, large encyclopedia titled Hewath Hekhemtho (Butyrum Sapientiarum) in three volumes, which comprehensively covered the entire Aristotelian discipline. He later abridged this work into Teghrath Teghrotho (Mercatura Mercatusarum). Bar Hebraeus also authored two smaller works, The Speech of Wisdom and The Pupils of the Eyes, alongside treatises on the rational soul and philosophical poetry.  His ambition to write a larger philosophical work, intended to clarify obscurities and reveal philosophical secrets based on his own deductions and personal opinions, remained unfulfilled due to his death. 

The Syriac-Greek Philosophical Nexus 

The relationship between Syriac and Greek philosophy was fundamentally one of adoption, meticulous translation, and insightful commentary. Syriac scholars served as crucial intermediaries for the transmission of Greek philosophical traditions, particularly those of Aristotle, not only to their own intellectual centers but also to other oriental nations and, subsequently, to Europe. 

Syriac Scholars as Pioneering Intermediaries

The Syriacs were pioneers among the oriental nations in their engagement with philosophical sciences. They distinguished themselves by being the first to study these disciplines through the direct translation and commentary of Aristotle's works. This established their precedence and intellectual leadership in the region. Early centers of learning played a vital role in this process. As early as the middle of the fifth century, the School of Edessa became a significant hub where Syriacs began to teach peripatetic philosophy, which is Aristotelian philosophy. Later, in the seventh century, the Monastery of Qenneshrin gained widespread renown as a destination for students of Greek philosophy. The intellectual efforts originating from these centers had far-reaching consequences; the philosophical sciences transmitted by Syriacs later found their way into Europe during the Middle Ages via Spain, where they were studied by Western scholars.

Major Greek Philosophical Works Translated into Syriac

Translation was a cornerstone of Syriac scholarship, making Greek philosophical texts accessible and foundational for further study. The Isagoge of Porphyry, an introduction to Aristotle's logic, held foundational importance and was translated, commented upon, and even re-translated for the second and third time. Key translators of this work include Ibas, metropolitan of Edessa (435-457), who is believed to be the first to translate it; Probus, chief physician and archdeacon of Antioch, who also worked on its translation ; the Syriac scholar Sergius of Rish 'Ayna (d. 536), who translated it; and Athanasius II of Balad, Patriarch of Antioch, who translated it in 645. An anonymous Greek writer is also credited with an Isagoge translation , and Dionysius Bar Salibi wrote a commentary on it in 1148.

Beyond these core texts, Syriac scholars translated a diverse array of other philosophical and literary works, showcasing the breadth of their intellectual curiosity. These included a collection of ethical and moral maxims by Pythagoras; Platonic definitions of faith, God, love, and righteousness, as well as Plato's advice to his disciple (noted for its pseudo-Platonic Christian touch); the counsel of Theano, a female philosopher; "Counsel of philosophers on the soul" and "Counsel of philosophers"; the "Life of Secundus" the philosopher; discourses on the soul and philosophical maxims (some attributed to Gregory Thaumaturgus); "Maxims of Menander" and "Maxims of Xystus"; a dialogue on the soul between Socrates and Erostrophus; a tract on the soul; Isocrates' discourse addressed to Demonicus; a treatise ascribed to Plutarch and his treatise on "de cohibenda ira" (which Baumstark believes was translated by Sergius of Rish 'Ayna); Lucian's treatise on the "Dispraise of Calumny"; and a treatise by Thamistius, which is unknown in Greek. The sayings of Aesop (Luqman the Sage) were also translated, as were portions of the writings of Apollonius Theane. Theodosius Romanus, Patriarch of Antioch (d. 896), translated one hundred and twelve Pythagorean maxims, adding his own commentaries in Syriac and Arabic.

Beyond mere linguistic transfer, Syriac scholars engaged deeply with Greek philosophy through providing significant expositions and commentaries.This indicates an intellectual engagement that went beyond simple translation, suggesting a concerted effort to understand, interpret, and integrate these ideas within their own intellectual frameworks.

Syriac Scholarship and its Influence on Arab Philosophy

The influence of Syriac scholarship on Arab philosophy was profound and transformative, positioning Syriac scholars as the primary intellectual bridge for the transmission of Greek thought to the nascent Arab intellectual tradition. Their role extended beyond mere translation; they actively taught the Arabs, laying the foundational groundwork for the flourishing of Islamic philosophy.

The Syriac scholars established a clear intellectual precedence in the region. They preceded and even taught the Arabs who tackled these sciences through Syriac translations. This statement underscores an active pedagogical role, indicating that Syriac intellectual centers were established hubs of philosophical learning well before the major flourishing of Arabic philosophy. Arab scholars were not simply discovering Greek texts independently; they were being introduced to them, and perhaps even to methods of philosophical inquiry, by their Syriac counterparts. The contributions of prominent Arab philosophers such as al-Farabi, Ibn Sina (Avicenna), and Ibn Rushd (Averroes) were explicitly based on extensive translations and interpretations, implicitly acknowledging the crucial groundwork laid by Syriac scholars in making these Greek texts accessible.

From the tenth to the middle of the eleventh century, Syriac philosophical scholars, particularly those from Baghdad or Takrit, excelled in translating philosophical and medical works. These scholars, including Abu Zachariah Denha the Syriac dialectician (d. 925), Yahya Ibn 'Adi (d. 974), Abu 'Ali 'Isa Ibn Zur'a (d. 1008), Abu al-Khayr al-Hasan Ibn Siwar al-Khammar and Isaac Ibn Zur'a (d. 1056), were proficient in both Syriac and Arabic, with some having mastered Greek. While the specific philosophical works they translated from Syriac into Arabic are not detailed, their bilingual proficiency and active involvement in translation underscore their crucial role in the transmission of knowledge to the Arab world.

Several individuals are explicitly identified as translators who worked on translations from Syriac to Arabic. These scholars directly facilitated the transfer of Syriac philosophical knowledge into the Arabic language, thereby making it accessible to Arab scholars. They include:

• 'Abd al-Masih ibn 'Abd Allah ibn Na'ima of Homs

• Hilal ibn Abi Hilal of Homs

• Zaruba al-Na'imi of Homs (active in the tenth century)

• Isaac of Raqqa, also known as the Taflisi, a physician of Sayf al-Dawla ibn Hamdan

• The physicians Abu Isaac Abraham ibn Bakos and his son Abu al-Hasan ibn Bakos 

• Isaac ibn 'Ali ibn Abraham ibn Hilal al-Katib ibn Bakos (contemporary of Abu al-Faraj ibn al-Tayyib, d. 1043)